DIFINITION AND MEASUREMENTOF HUMAN CAPITAL

Understanding and measuring human capital. Human capital theory is a thought which considers that humans are a form of capital or capital goods as other capital goods, such as land, buildings, machinery, and so forth. Human capital can be defined as the sum total of knowledge, skill, and intelligence of the people of a country.
These investments (human capital) is done in order to obtain higher levels of consumption in the future. Despite the controversy regarding the execution of human resources as human capital have not been resolved, but some classical economists and neo-classics like Adam Smith, Von Threnen, and Alfred Marshall agreed that human capital consists of skills acquired through education and useful for all members of society. Skills is a major force for economic growth.
In addition there is still disagreement about the concept of human capital, there are also disagreements about the measurement. According to Mary Jean Bowman's dissent is based on two things: First on the issue of whether capital (human capital) as a stock (store) or as an input to production. Second, with regard to weighting. In this weighting seen any efforts to treat the quantitative measures and qualitative in units of human capital. But there is no consensus on the treatment of quantitative measurement in human capital. A pendididikan size are realized in the labor force can be used to change the quality to quantity. Educational components and then into specific variables that can be compared with physical capital, and the size of the labor force in economic growth. As a consequence, the unit of capital is defined in a limited sense, namely in the labor force, which can be measured in several ways, among others are:
1. Number of school years
2. Efficiency-equivalence units
3. Base-year lifetime earned income
4. Approximations to real cost base year
5. Current approximations to real cost
There are some problems by measuring the formation of human capital approach to cost basis. Measures of net capital formation encountered some difficulties, among others.
1. With regard to the problem of the complexity of the relationship between consumption and investment.
2. Is related to how to treat unemployment in estimating the opportunity cost.

Human Resource Development
That there are three kinds of resources, namely natural resources (natural resources), human resources (human resources), and capital resources (capital resources). What is discussed here is a human resources emphasis on human capital (human capital .) The objective of human resource development is to improve the quality and use. About this destination Statement presented briefly in Budapest and the Jakarta Plan of Action. There are two main aspects in the development of human resources, namely the micro aspect, namely that relating to personal development, and macro aspects, with respect to the means, facilities, and climate with regard to personal development.
Development effort is done through education and training. Education and Training conducted with the intent to establish, prepare, maintain, and enhance human capabilities (learners) and their usage. Therefore, the development was done at the expense of current consumption pasa ongoing development and is intended to obtain a higher level of consumption in the future, then in essence these activities is an investment, ie investment in human resources (human capital). So education and training has an important role, not only increase knowledge, but also increase work productivity. As human capital, then education is meant here is education pursued after compulsory school.
Education and training can be done outside of school, including through on-the-job training, institutional training, apprenticeship traning, and up-grading training. On the job training provided to their official status as employees. There are two forms of training that is in-service training and pre-service training. Training institutions (institutional training) is done through the organization and development of an integral system as part of the national education system. Delivery is usually done by universities. Training the technical level and training level of workers' hands. Then the apprentice training. The training is given to those who will be appointed employees / workers. Furthermore, upgrading training. The training is conducted to enhance knowledge, skills and intelligence of those who already have a specific task.
1.
1. Improving the quality of education can be implemented by setting goals and standards of educational competence through a national consensus between the government and the whole society. Standards of educational outcomes might be different between schools and between regions will generate national competency standards in the levels of minimum standards, normal (mainstream) and seeded.
2. Improved efficiency in the management of education leading to school-based education management, by giving greater confidence to the schools to optimize the resources available for meeting the educational goals that are expected
3. Increased relevance of education leading to community-based education. Increased participation of parents and the community at the policy level and operational level through a committee or school board. This committee is comprised of principals, senior teachers, parent representatives, community leaders and student representatives. The role of this committee include planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of school work program.
4. Equitable education services leading to an equitable education. This is regarding the implementation of the education funding formula fair and transparent, equitable distribution of quality education efforts in the presence of minimum competency standards and equitable educational services for students at all levels of society.
Compulsory Basic Education

Input, Process, and Results of Education
National education goals at the macro level is the realization of civil society as a nation and people of Indonesia with a new order of life in accordance with the mandate of the proclamation of the Republic of Indonesia through the education process. New Indonesian society has the attitude and insight of faith and high morals, freedom and democracy, tolerance and human rights menunjung and discerning and global perspective.
National education goals in micro was the realization of new human individuals who have the attitude and insight of faith and high morals, freedom and democracy, tolerance and respect for human rights, mutual understanding and global perspective.
Mission macro long-term national education is toward civil society. In the field of educational administration educational implementation of an autonomous organization, adaptability and broad but flexible, be open and oriented to the needs and interests of the nation. Balancing authority and community participation has evolved naturally. Education has held a vision of global community life, has a national commitment and act locally leads to excellence, and make the institution as a center of civilization.
Micro long-term educational mission is to prepare individuals of Indonesian society towards a civil society. Education produces individuals who are independent, faithful and devoted to God Almighty, virtuous, skilled technology and capability to act socially. Education curriculum implemented in the open so it can meet the needs of virtual and real. Education produces exemplary man with vision, commitment and discipline.
Relevance, Efficiency, Quality, Equity, and Education Policy
2. Children are the focus for the hopes of the nation, because the child is the next generation. In order for children to become the next generation who have the potential of a strong human resources, the growing development should be running optimally. And this is where the role of education.
3. Children and the future is a unity that can be realized to form a generation that needed by the nation, especially nations that are building. Increased skills, mental and moral development must be increased so did the other aspects.
4. Human quality is powerful, reliable and superior to be prepared by education, for support of livelihood that is being pursued. Superior quality in this educational process, in addition to having the characteristics of such enduring devotion to Almighty God, honesty, noble character, must be coupled with the tenacity, persistence, competitiveness, independence, courage to solve problems and deal with reality, and diligent and work hard too highly disciplined.
5. Education is a cultural process to increase the price and the dignity of the nation last a lifetime implemented within the family, school and community. Therefore, education is a shared responsibility between families, communities, and government.

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Education As the Consumption and Investment Economics

Micro economics education learn the elements of demand, supply, and price of product education services. At the request of the elements learned about how prospective students to maximize the net revenue expected lifetime. Who's on the producer, namely education units to learn about how to combine inputs in order to obtain the lowest total cost, therefore, the discussion will also be related to the discussion about education as an industry.
Education organized by educational institutions, in which educational institutions may establish one or more educational units, then this means that the institution has a position as a business entity, and education units such as elementary, junior high, high school, vocational school, and programs of study in college serves as the company (firm).
In addition, because the product of education in the form of services, it is necessary to note also about the characteristics of the service industry, in this case is education services.
Market, Demand, Supply and Education Services
Education is the overall market demand and supply on a particular type of educational services. Just as in the economic field, then the market in the education market can be divided into concrete and abstract market. Judging from its shape, the education market have in common with market competition monopoly. Talking about the education market, then at least there are two important elements, namely the education demand and supply of education.
About the education market there are several definitions. Among other things suggested by Hector Corea, he argued that the demand for education illustrates the need, and is manifested by a desire to be a specific lesson. There are several factors that affect demand for education such as cultural, political, and economic. Then, individual educational demand in the aggregate is affected by factors such as: parental income, parental education, parental employment, education, public policy (government), policy institutions, and individual perceptions of each type of education. Demand for education also depends on the perspective, that is whether education is considered as consumption, as an investment, or consumption and investment.
Educational offerings can be viewed at the macro and micro. At the macro level, the provision of education can be implemented on the basis of employment approach. Who's in micro, namely the procurement of education at the unit level of education, such as a junior, a high school education and sebagainya.Terlepas by whom it was held, then the procurement process of education should be carried out effectively and efficiently.
About the price of education. To determine the price of education services is not simple, as the price of goods. Since many components that must be calculated, including the registration fee, registration fees (BP3, etc.), money summative tests, reports money education, money re-registration, and so forth.
Then about price elasticity. The price elasticity or the elasticity of demand for education is the comparison between the relative changes of demand for educational services with relative change of the price. In accordance with its market form, ie monopolistic competition, the nature of the elasticity of demand is inelastic.
Education as Public Goods and Private Goods
Education can be a public goods and private goods can be. Public goods (public goods) is a type of goods that are needed by society, but nobody is willing to produce it. There are two main characteristics of these goods, namely nonrival consumption and non-exclusion. Based on the definition and properties of public goods, for education can be classified as public goods, it must meet the following criteria:
1. Education should be the goods / services consumption.
2. Education is needed by everyone.
3. Private parties are not willing to produce it.
4. Education, consumption has nonrival nature consumption and non-exclusion.
In accordance with these criteria, then the basic education or compulsory education consisting of primary and secondary school can be classified as public goods. There are some underlying theory of public goods. The theories put forward by Bowen, Eric Lindahl, and Samuelson. All three theories are in principle talk about how the procurement and loading costs.
Education can also be classified as private goods. Private goods (private goods) is their provision of goods is done through market mechanisms. Included in this category is at the level of education after compulsory education, namely high school (SMU and SMK), and Universities. At this level of provision of education is not only driven by motivations that are religious, and nationality, but also driven by business considerations. Thus, the presence or absence or extent of production of education is influenced by the extent of demand and revenues that may be received by the organizer / manager in the future.

Education as consumption and as an Investment
Education can be viewed as consumption, as investment and as consumption and investment are complementary. Education as consumption is education as a fundamental human right. Or is one of the democratic rights of every citizen. So until a certain level of procurement should be done by the government. Therefore, in many countries basic education (primary and secondary school) were used as compulsory education. As a consequence of education at this level of education not only as a right, but also as an obligation for every citizen at a particular age level (in Indonesia between 6 and 15 years).
In terms of the nature of needs, procurement of education at this level is a public good. Then views of motivation, then education as consumption is motivated by a desire to satisfy the need for personal development, social needs, the need for knowledge and understanding. Furthermore, the orientation time is now. Demand for education is influenced by the size of disposable income.
Education as an investment objective to obtain net income or rate of return is greater in the future. Education costs in this type of education is viewed as the amount of money bought to acquire or invest in a number of human capital (human capital) that can enlarge the economic capacity in the future. Education as an investment based on the assumption that man is a form of capital (capital) as other forms of capital that are critical to the growth of productivity of a nation. Through his investment someone can expand alternative to other activities so as to improve the welfare of his life in the future.
Education as consumption and investment are complementary.
Education after compulsory education has the aim not only to acquire knowledge, understanding, personality development, and the satisfaction of social needs (status and prestige) as well as to obtain better jobs, so it can earn net income for life is higher in the foreseeable come.
In accordance with the above description, the amount of education acquired by a person will have high impact on low income that he obtained, though not fully guarantee. But the trend is quite large.

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CORPORATE SOCIAL REAPONSIBILITY

The company has a social obligation for what is happening around the community environment. In addition to using funds from shareholders, the company also uses funds from other resources that come from the public (consumers) so that it is fair if people have certain expectations of the company.
Dauman and Hargreaves (1992) in Hasibuan (2001) states that awab liability company can be divided into three levels as follows:
1. Basic responsibility (BR)
At the first level, connecting the first responsibility of a company, which arises because the existence of such companies as; company must pay taxes, comply with the law, employment standards, and satisfy shareholders. If responsibility is not fulfilled at this level will result in very serious ang.
2. Organization responsibility (OR)
At this second level shows the company's responsibility to meet the changing needs of "stakeholders" such as employees, shareholders, and the surrounding community.

3. Sociental responses (SR)
At the third level, shows the stages when the interaction between business and other forces in society so strong that the company can grow and develop in a sustainable, engaged with what happens in the environment as a whole. Corporate responsibility is not only limited to the company's financial performance, but also must be responsible for social problems caused by operational activities by the company.
The Teuku and supplement (1997) in a Nour Cahyonowati (2003) describe social responsibility as an obligation not only organizations that provide goods and services that are good for society, but also maintain the quality of social and physical environment, and also contributed positively to the welfare of the community where they are located. Meanwhile, according to Ivan Sevic (Hasibuan, 2001) social responsibility means that companies have a responsibility in actions that affect consumers, society and environment. In addition, Weston and Brigham (1990) states that companies should play an active role in supporting the welfare of society at large. Of the three terms above can be concluded that social responsibility is a form of accountability that should be firm, for both positive and negative impacts from operational activities, and perhaps more or less
affect the internal and external community in the corporate environment. In addition to profit-oriented activities, companies need to conduct other activities, such activities to provide a safe working environment for its employees, ensure that the production process does not pollute the environment around the company, placing their honest labor, to produce a safe product for consumers, and maintaining the external environment to achieve corporate social responsibility.
1. Disclosure of Corporate Social Responsibility According to Hackston and Milne, tangggung corporate social responsibility is often referred to as corporate social responsibility or social disclosure, corporate social reporting, social reporting is a process of communicating the social and environmental impacts of economic activities of organizations of special interest groups and on society overall (Sembiring, 2005). It is the responsibility of expanding the organization in this company, beyond its traditional role to provide financial reports to the investors, especially shareholders. The expansion was made with the assumption that the company has a broader responsibility than simply seek profits for shareholders (Gray et.al (1995) in Hasibuan (2001). According to Gray in Sembiring et.al (2005) there are two approaches that significantly different in conducting research on corporate social responsibility disclosure. First, the disclosure of corporate social responsibility may be treated as a supplement of the conventional accounting activities. This approach generally will consider the financial community as the primary users of corporate social responsibility disclosure and tends to limit the perception of responsibility reported social.
The second alternative approach by putting corporate social responsibility disclosure in a testing role of information in public relations and organization. This broader view has become the main source of progress in the understanding of disclosure of corporate social responsibility and is a major source of criticism against the disclosure of corporate social responsibility Many theories explaining why companies tend to disclose information relating to the activities and the impact caused by the company them. Gray et al (1995) in Henny
and Murtanto (2001) says there are three studies are:
1. Decision usefullness studies.
Most of the studies conducted by researchers who put forward this theory have found evidence that social information needed by the users of financial statements. In this case, analysts, bankers, and other parties involved in the study were asked to perform rating on accounting information. Accounting information is not limited to accounting information tradisioanal known so far, but also other information that is relatively new in the discourse of accounting. They put information on the position of corporate social activities are moderately Important for use as consideration by the users in decision making
2. Economic theory studies
This study uses agency theory and positive accounting theory, where theory menganalogikan management as an agent of a principal. In the use of agency theory, principals interpreted as a shareholder or other traditional users. But understanding the principals expanded to all companies concerned interest groups. As a management agent will attempt to operate the company in accordance with the wishes of the public (stakeholders).
3. Social studies and political theory.
Studies in this field using the theory of stakeholders, organizational legitimacy theory, and theory of political economy. The theory assumes that the existence of the company's stakeholders are determined by parastakeholders. Companies trying to find a justification of the stakeholders in the company's operations. Resulting greater the tendency of companies to adapt themselves against the wishes of their stakeholders.
According Murtanto (2006) in Media Accounting, disclosure of company performance is often done voluntarily (voluntary disclosure) by the company. As for the reasons companies voluntarily disclose social performance, among others:
1. Internal Decision Making: Management needs information to determine the effectiveness of a particular social information in achieving the social objectives of the company. Although it is difficult to be identified and measured, but simply analissis better than nothing at all sam
2. Product Differentiation: company managers have an incentive to differentiate themselves from competitors who are not socially responsible to the public. Contemporary accounting records do not separate the costs and benefits of corporate social activity in the financial statements, so the company is not social care will look more successful than the company that cares. This encourages companies to disclose social care information so that people can distinguish them from other companies.
3. Enlightened Self Interest: companies make disclosures to maintain social harmony with the stakeholders because they can affect sales revenue and the company's stock price. Social Accountability relates also to the social contract theory. According to this theory, among the company's business and the community there is a social contract that is implicitly or explicitly. Where the social contract, social accounting is used as a series of techniques of data collection and disclosure to enable the public to evaluate the social performance of organizations in giving an assessment on the feasibility of operating the organization according to Parker (2002) in a Nour Cahyonowati (2003). In addition, corporate responsibility is needed to assess whether the activities of the company has complied with, standards and regulations. For example, on pollution, health and safety, the danger of the use of toxic materials.
At the company begin to interact and close to the outer environment (society), then the developing relationship of mutual dependence and mutual interests and objectives between the company and existing social institutions. These interactions cause the company can no longer make decisions or policies that only benefit his party alone. But the company also must consider the needs of the parties interested in the company (stakeholder needs). If the pressure from stakeholders strongly affected the continuity and performance of the company then the company should be able to arrange social and environmental policies of targeted and legitimate (Nur Cahyonowati, 2003).
2 Factors Affecting Social Disclosure
Social activities the company is one of the components used in the annual report. The absence of standards regulating the reporting of corporate social activity causing the diversity of forms of social disclosure made by the company. Each company has different policies regarding social disclosure in accordance with the characteristics of the company. This raises a problem in measuring social disclosures. Therefore, measurement of social disclosure made by using a research instrument of social disclosure items list based on research conducted by Hackston and Milne (1996) Many factors can influence the social accountability, such as company size, profitability, size of the board of commissioners, as well as profile which is considered as a variable estimators in the disclosure of social responsibility. Given the many factors that affect social pertangggungjawaban, this research will see whether the company size, profitability, size of the board of commissioners, and the types of companies will have an effect or not on social responsibility by companies.
1 Size
Company size is a variable that is widely used to explain social disclosures by the company in the annual report is made. In general, large companies will disclose more information than smaller companies. This is because large companies will face greater political risk than small firms. Theoretically, large companies will not be free from political pressure, the pressure to perform social responsibility. Greater social disclosure is a political cost reductions for the company (Hasibuan, 2001). By expressing concern for the environment through financial reporting, then the company for a long time can avoid the huge costs resulting from the demands of society.
According to Buzby (Hasibuan 2001) there are allegations that the company would reveal little of poorer quality than large companies. This is due to lack of resources and substantial funds in the Annual Report. Management concerned with reveal more would jeopardize the company's position against other competitors. The availability of resources and funds to make the company feel the need to finance the provision of information for social accountability.
In addition, larger companies tend to have a public demand for information is higher than smaller companies. Another reason is the large enterprises and have greater agency costs of course will disclose information more widely this is done to reduce agency costs incurred. More shareholders, meaning also requires more disclosure, this is because tunt

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STATE ORGANIZATION

The purpose of this talk about COMPOSITION OF THE STATE is going to discuss the shape of the State in terms of susunanya. State, if the terms of the arrangement will result in two possible forms of the composition of the State, namely;
1. Single bersusunan State, which is called a Unitary State.
2. State bersusunan plural, called the State Federation.

1. Unitary State.
Unitary state, can also be called a Unitarian state. The country is reviewed in terms of its composition Dair, indeed the structure is single, meaning that it is the Unitary State of the State that is not composed of several countries. Rather it consists only of a State which is not composed of several countries. Rather it consists of only one state, so there is no State in the State. Thus the unity of the State there is only one rule, namely that the Central Government has the power and supreme authority in the field of State administration, establish government policy and implement the State Government both at central and regional areas.
On review from the aspect of history and immunization ketetanegaraan Negar, at the beginning of its development, from very ancient times, ancient times. Jama medieval, renaissance, then entered the era of good natural law XVIII century, the power of the rulers iti are generally absolute, and still the implementation of the principle of centralization and the principle of concentration.
The second principle was briefly stated as follows dapalah understanding;
1. The principle of centralization, is a principle that requires that all power and government affairs belonged to the Central Government.
2. Konsentralisasi principle, is a principle that requires that all power and government affairs were conducted solely by the central government. Whether that is in the center of government or in the local area.
Indeed sesunggunyalah after entering the century of natural law developments, XVII and XVIII century, and developed lahri attempts to limit the power of the rulers of the State, among others, by;
1. John Locke to the doctrine of human rights.
2. Montesquieu with teaching triad politics.
3. J.J. Rousseau with his doctrine kedalulatan people.
4. Immanuel Kant in his doctrine of State law, and
5. Maurice Duverger with the doctrine of election and appointment of the rulers of the State which will hold and carry out State power.

This thing is done by great thinkers about the state and its laws in order to be able to limit the power of these rulers, it was just simply create a theory or doctrine that is expected to limit the power of the rulers, because in practice the implementation of the State pemrintah power of these rulers still tetapp is absolute.

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CENTRAL BANK

Central Bank is an institution that has an important role in the economy, especially in monetary affairs, finance and banking. This is apparent from the function and purpose of the Central Bank that is not identical with commercial banks, savings banks and other financial lembanga. Objectives, tasks and authority senteral bank in a country different from the others, depending on the social structure, politics and economics of each country. Viewed from the authority, the composition of organizational units within the central bank basically consists of two levels, namely the highest autority, ie units that have the highest authority and the second level, second level which has authority under the highest.
There are three agencies that have the highest authority in the organization's bank
central which can be expressed as follows:
1. Policy-making body
2. Implementing agency policies
3. The regulatory body.
Policy-making body
the organization of central banks generally shaped Council (Council) and
in formulating policies, decision set based on majority vote.
Implementing agency policies
are the units / agencies within the central bank organization that is empowered to implement and realize the policies already set by policy-making body.
The regulatory body
is a unit within the organization who has the task of central banks and
authority to conduct supervision and inspection at the central bank.
Function of Bank Sentaral
Central bank is basically responsible for maintaining monetary system in order
can work efficiently, so as to ensure the creation of the growth rate of credit / money supply as required to achieve the expected economic growth without causing inflation. In addition, the central bank responsible for managing, protecting and maintaining the stability of the rupiah. In performing this task, the central bank to do it by using the tools / instruments of monetary wisdom as:
a. Politics Discounts
b. Political Open Market Operations
c. Political Changes in the Minimum Reserves
d. Margin Requirement
e. Moral Suasion

Bank Indonesia
in the Act N0. 23 of 1999 states that the purpose of Bank Indonesia is to achieve and maintain rupiah stability. Vision Bank Indonesia central bank is an institution that can be trusted nationally and internationally by strengthening the strategic value that is owned and achieving low and stable inflation.
Bank Indonesia's mission as outlined in the Governor's decision No.
4/22Kep/GBI/INTERN/2002 June 28, 2002 is a purpose, duties and authority of Bank Indonesia, as mandated in the law on Bank Indonesia. In other words the Bank Indonesia's mission is to achieve and maintain rupiah stability by maintaining monetary stability and development of financial system stability for long-term national development sustainable. For Bank Indonesia, the formulation of the vision is expected to assist the organization in:
1. Establish and maintain consistency, and clarity of organizational goals
2. Provide reference to planning and decision making process
3. Getting kemitmen the members of the Board of Governors and all employees through clear communication about organizational tasks, and
4. Getting support and understanding from the parties concerned on the implementation of organizational tasks.
In addition to vision and mission, Bank Indonesia has a strategic value that consists of:
1. Competence (competency)
2. Integrity (integrity)
3. Transparency (Transparency)
4. Accountability (accountability)
5. Cohesiveness
6. payment. In line with these tasks, the organization of Bank Indonesia are grouped into three main sectors:
1. Monetary Sector
2. Banking Sector
3. Sector payment system
4. Internal management sector (as supporters)
5. Law No.23 of 1999 concerning Bank Indonesia has provided a good foundation (conducive) in creating a credible policy of Bank Indonesia. The law has clearly established that the objectives of Bank Indonesia as already mentioned. Next in the Law of Bank Indonesia (UUBI) assigned the task of Bank Indonesia as:
1). To formulate and implement monetary policy,
2). Set up and maintain the smoothness and payment system
3). Regulate and supervise banks.
Strategic Objectives of Bank Indonesia
For the medium and long term strategic goals set seven banks
Indonesia:
1. Achieving price stability, by maintaining appropriate levels of inflation targets at the range and an acceptable period of time through research, policy formulation and effective operation of monetary control
2. Creating a sound banking system and effective, by improving and seeing the stability of the banking and soundness of individual banks through research, policy formulation, regulation, guidance, supervision and effective system of banking information
3. Ensure the safety and efficiency of payment systems, namely by improving safety, efficiency and effectiveness of the national payment system, through policy, regulation and effective control, which is supported by a reliable technology
4. Achieved a positive image both internally and externally, that is well known in Indonesia and international central bank as an institution capable, trustworthy, and reliable through a major contribution to stability and economic growth in Indonesia
5. Improve coordination and networking with those who berkepntingan sperti sawasta government agencies and both domestic and international, through dialogue and
continuous open communication
6. Being a knowledge-based organization, that is by realizing the organization that is able to control, develop and disseminate the relevant knowledge to all the organizations that are supported by information technology through policy and regulatory organizations
7. Developing an effective mnusia resources and highly competent, namely by improving the knowledge, skills and integrity of Bank Indonesia employees, through coaching, training, providing opportunities and programs are effective and sustainable development.
Bank Indonesia Head Office
Organiasai Bank Indonesia consists of units of work at the Head Office
in accordance with the distribution sector.
1. Monetary Sector
2. Banking Sector
3. Sector Payment System
4. Internal Management

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CLASSICAL MONETARY THEORY

Classical monetary theory is based on JB. Say, Irving Fisher and A. Marshall. J.B. Say's law has put forward is famous for stating that the supply will always create a demand (supply creates its own demand). This means that an economy will not experience underemployment or the disebet by Maltus underconsumtion. Total public spending will always be sufficient to support production at current state
Monetary theory of many associated with the quantity theory of money assumes that many factors affect the value of money is the money supply (quantity of money or the supply of money).
Quantity Theory of Recardo
Recardo is the person who originally found the theory of value for money by arguing that the strong and the weak value of money depends on the amount of money in circulation. If the amount of money turned into a 2-fold the amount of money will decrease and a half times the original, otherwise if the money is less by half, then the value of money will be doubled. It happens, because if the amount of money increased to 2 times then it will affect the price rose to two-fold and automatic the value will decrease by half.
This theory sebgai written with the following formula:
M = KP
Where:
M = kuantity of money
P = the general price level
The money supply is initially for OM, and the price level as high as op1. If the amount of money doubled (OM2) then the price rises were also two times (Op2) and the value of money fell by half.
Irving Fisher's Quantity Theory of
Irving Fisher tried to fix Ricardo's theory by including the three factors that mepengaruhi value for money. The theory of Irving Fisher was named "the transaction equation of exchange" which states that "Any payments by households, businesses, and governments on the other hand is a multiplication between price and quantity are the same as multiplying the amount of money in circulation and the speed of rotation". Mathematically, this relationship can be written
MV = PT
Where:
M = Quanti of money
V = velocity of circulation of money
P = price level
T = volume of good and services.
M x V shows the number of payments / expenditures are made public within a certain period. On the other hand it is payment for the purchase of goods and services (T), while T is to know the price (P), so the number of purchases declared
M x V = P x T.
From this formula can be determined the level of price and value for money, the price level equal to the amount of money multiplied by the speed of rotation divided by the number of goods traded:
P = MV / T is the value of money
W = 1 / P.
The fact indicates that the factor P is passive is not always true. Sometimes P may also play a decisive role in influencing the speed of the velocity of money. Thus between M, VP and T there is a relationship of mutual influence of affect. This fact may weaken the theory of Irving Fisher as a tool of monetary analysis.
Quantity Theory of D.H. Roberston
The quantity theory of Irving Fisher formulated back by DH Robertson becomes M = OPT. Actually both theories are the same, the difference lies in the approach. Irving Fisher reviewed the transaction through velocity (average velocity of money transactions). D.H. Robetson approached through cash balance (the average long idle money.) Therefore, the quantity theory of Robetson equaition is called cash balance., Factor V in the transaction velocity of approach by Robertson replaced by k in the cash balance approach. k that indicates how long on average each mengaggur dollars in cash is a reversal of the V which shows how many times each and every dollars change hands.
So k = 1 / V
and if the formula
M = KPT, we change k to 1 / V. then obtained by the formula;
M = TP / V or
MV = PT.
Quantity Theory of Marshall
What is the quantity theory in the face of more focused attention on the relationship between the amount of money with the price, then Mrshall notice a link between the amount of money to national income by the formula:
M = kY
Where:
M = Quanity of money
Y = income in cash bentuik
K = pendaoatan part of that is not spent and want controlled
in bnetuk money
Because the money was income derived from the amount of production multiplied by price
(PO), the Fisher formula can be written as
MV = PO = Y.
Marshall's theory is the beginning of the theory of demand for money. This theory is still very simple, it contains some weaknesses, these weaknesses and then enhanced by subsequent theory. The first drawback is that in reality is not fixed V, both in developed and developing countries. V tend to be constant. The second drawback is the classical theory ignores the influence of the interest rate on perimtaan money. The quantity theory of money assumes that the demand for cash is not affected by interest rate (because the main motive for holding money is for the transaction, the amount depending on income.

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UNDERSTANDING THE LEARNING EVALUATION

Evaluation can be defined as an activity that is planned to determine the state of an object by using the instruments and the results were compared with a
benchmarks to obtain a conclusion. The main function of evaluation is to examine an object or situation to get the right information as a basis for decision making
According Grondlund opinions and Linn (1990) says that pembelajran evaluation is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information secaras
systematically to determine the extent of achievement of learning objectives.
To obtain the right information in the evaluation is done through measurement activities. Measurement is a process of scoring or the numbers of a condition or symptom based atura-specific rules. Thus there is strong correlation between measurements (measurment) and evaluation (evaluation) activities is a basic measurement in the evaluation.
Evaluation is the process of describing, collecting and presenting some useful information for consideration in the decision. Evaluation is an evaluation of learning in the field of learning. The objective evaluation
learning is to gather information as fundamental to know the extent of progress, development, and achievement of student learning and teaching effectiveness of teachers. Evaluation of learning includes the measurement and assessment activities. When viewed from the goal, the learning evaluation is divided based on diagnostic evaluation, selective, placement, formative and summative. When viewed from the target,
evaluation of learning can be distinguished on the evaluation context, inputs, processes, results and outcom. The evaluation process carried out through three phases: planning, execution, processing and reporting.

Types of Learning Evaluation

A. This type of evaluation based on the objectives of the five types of evaluation are distinguished:
1. Diagnostic evaluation diagnostic evaluation is an evaluation which aimed to examine the weaknesses of students and their contributing factors.
2. Evaluation of selective selective evaluation is an evaluation that is used to select the most appropriate Siwa in accordance with criteria specific program activities.
3. Evaluation of placement Eva; uasi placement is an evaluation that is used to place students in certain educational programs in accordance with the characteristics of students.
4. Formative evaluation
5. Formative evaluation Formative evaluation is evaluation carried out to improve and increase the process of learning and teaching.
6. Summative Evaluation Summative Evaluation is an evaluation conducted to determine the outcome and progress bekajra students.

B. This type of evaluation based on the target:

1. Evaluation The evaluation context is intended to measure the context of good programs on rational objectives, background programs, as well as the needs that arise in planning
2. Evaluation Evaluation input that is directed to determine whether the input of resources and strategies used to achieve the goal.
3. Evaluation Evaluation is the process aimed to see the process of implementation, both on kalancaran process, compliance with plans, supporting factors and resistance factor that emerged in the process of implementation, and the like.
4. Evaluation of the results or product evaluation program is directed to look at the results achieved as a basis for determining the final decision, repaired, modified, upgraded or discontinued.
5. Evaluation Evaluation outcom or graduates who are directed to look further student learning outcomes, evaluation of graduates yankni after plunging into the community.

C. Type of evaluation based on the scope of learning activities:

1. Evaluation Evaluais learning program that includes the objectives of learning, content learning programs, teaching and learning strategies, aspe-learning other aspects of the program.
2. Evaluation Evaluation of the learning process that includes the adjustment of learning peoses with the outlines of the learning program that is set, the ability of teachers in implementing the learning process, students' skills in following the learning process.
3. Evaluation Evaluation of learning outcomes learning outcomes include the level of student mastery of defined learning objectives, both general and specific, are reviewed in cognitive, affective, psychomotor.

D. This type of evaluation based on the object and subject of evaluation by the object:

1. Evaluation Evaluation of student input includes the ability of personality, attitudes, beliefs.
2. Evaluation Evaluation tnsformasi against each transformation elements of learning processes among other materials, media, and other methods.
3. Evaluation The evaluation of the graduate output refers to the achievement of learning outcomes.
Based on the subject:
1. Evaluation of internal evaluation done by people in the school as an evaluator, such as teachers.
2. External Evaluation
3. Evaluation is done by people outside the school as evaluators, such as parents, community.

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NATIONAL MONUMENTS

National Monuments

National Monument or the popular abbreviated or Tugu Monas Monument is a monument as high as 132 meters (433 feet) which was established to commemorate the resistance and the Indonesian people's struggle for independence from the Dutch East Indies colonial administration. Construction of this monument began on August 17, 1961 under the orders of President Sukarno, and opened to the public on July 12, 1975. The monument is crowned with flame-coated gold leaf that symbolizes the spirit of the glowing struggle. National Monument is located right in the middle of Merdeka Square, Central Jakarta. Monuments and museums are open every day starting at 08:00 to 15:00 West Indonesia Time. On Monday last week of each month is closed to the public.

History
After the central government of the Republic of Indonesia returned to Jakarta after the previous domicile in Yogyakarta in 1950 following the recognition of the sovereignty of the Republic of Indonesia by the Dutch government in 1949, President Sukarno began thinking about building a national monument which is equivalent to the Eiffel Tower on the ground right in front of Merdeka Palace. Monas monument Development aims to commemorate and preserve the Indonesian struggle during the revolution of independence, 1945, to continue to inspire patriotism and spirit of present and future generations.
On August 17, 1954 a national committee was formed and a national monument design competition held in 1955. There are 51 works entered, but only one works made by Frederich Silaban who meet the prescribed criteria of the committee, among others, describe the character of the Indonesian nation and can last for centuries. The second contest was held in 1960 but again none of 136 participants who meet the criteria. Chairman of the jury later asked Silaban to show the design to Sukarno. However, Sukarno less like the design it and he wanted the monument was shaped phallus and yoni. Silaban then asked to design a monument with a theme like that, but the design of the proposed Silaban too extraordinary that the costs are very large and can not be borne by the state budget, especially when economic conditions were bad enough. Silaban refused to design a smaller building, and suggested that development be postponed until the Indonesian economy improves. Sukarno then asks architect R.M. Soedarsono to resume the draft. Soedarsono enter number 17, 8 and 45, represent begin August 17, 1945 proclamation of Indonesian independence, into the design of the monument. [1] [2] [3] The National Memorial was later built in the area of 80 hectares. This monument diarsiteki Silaban and R. Friedrich M. Soedarsono, began construction August 17, 1961.

Development
The development consists of three stages. The first phase, the period 1961/1962 - 1964/1965 officially begins with the start of construction on August 17, 1961 with a ceremonial stick Sukarno first concrete pegs. Total 284 pins are used as building foundation concrete. A total of 360 pegs embedded earth for the foundation of the national history museum. The entire foundation erection completed in March 1962. The walls of the museum at the base of the building was completed in October. Development obelisk then started and finally completed in August 1963. The second phase of development took place in the period 1966 until 1968 due to the September 30th Movement of 1965 (G-30-S/PKI) and an attempted coup, this phase was delayed. The final stage took place in 1969-1976 by adding a diorama at the museum's history. Although construction has been completed, problems still occur, including leakage of water that flooded the museum. The monument was officially opened to the public and was inaugurated on July 12, 1975 by the President of the Republic of Indonesia Soeharto. [4] [5] The location of this monument known as the Merdeka Square. Monas Square experiencing five times the renaming Gambier Field, Field Ikada, Merdeka Square, National Monument Square and Monument Park. Around the monument there is a garden, two ponds and some open field where the exercise. On holidays Medan Merdeka filled with visitors who enjoy the scenery Monas recreation and perform various activities in the park.

Design Monuments
Monas design based on the concept of universal eternal partner; Linga and Yoni. Monument towering obelisk that symbolizes the phallus male, masculine elements which are active and positive, and symbolizes the day. While the court of the cup base of the obelisk is Yoni symbolizes the female, the feminine element is passive and negative, and symbolizes the night. [6] Linga and yoni is the symbol of fertility and harmonious unity complementary Indonesia since prehistoric times. Also Monas form can also be interpreted as a pair of "pestle" and "mortar", a rice pestle found in every traditional Indonesian peasant household. Thus the full dimensions of the monument design distinctive national culture of Indonesia. The monument consists of 117.7 meters above the obelisk on a square base of The 17 meters tall, the court of the cup. This monument is coated with Italian marble.
Swimming on Merdeka Square Park North is 25 x 25 meters designed as part of the air conditioning system as well as enhance your appearance Monument Park. Nearby there is the fountain and statue of Prince Diponegoro, who was riding his horse, made of bronze weighing 8 tons. The statue was created by Italian sculptor, Professor. Coberlato [7] as a donation by the Consulate General of Honores, Dr. Mario Bross in Indonesia. The entrance to the monument located in North Merdeka park near the statue of Prince Diponegoro. Entrance through a tunnel that is 3 m below the park and cross the road this monument, the entrance of visitors to the memorial monument. Ticket booth located at the end of the tunnel. When the visitors got back into the ground on the north side of the monument, visitors can continue the tour of the relief of the history of the struggle of Indonesia; get into the museum of national history through the door at the northeast corner, or straight up into the middle towards independence hall or elevator to the top court of the monument.

Relief Indonesian History
In the courtyard outside around the monument, at every corner there is a relief depicting the history of Indonesia arise. Relief begins at the northeast corner to perpetuate the glory of the archipelago in the past, displaying the history Singhasari and Majapahit. This relief continues in chronological order in a clockwise direction towards the southeast corner, southwest, and northwest. Chronologically depict the Dutch colonial period, the resistance of the people of Indonesia and Indonesia's national heroes, the formation of modern organizations that fight for an independent Indonesia in the early 20th century, Youth Pledge, the Japanese Occupation and World War II, Indonesia's independence proclamation followed the Revolution and War of Independence of the Republic Indonesia, to achieve the development of modern Indonesia. Reliefs and sculptures are made of cement or metal pipe with the frame, unfortunately some sculptures and statues began to fall out and damaged by rain and tropical weather.

National History Museum
At the base of the monument at a depth of 3 meters below ground level, there is the Museum of National History of Indonesia. Large space museum of history of national struggle with the size 80 x 80 meters wide, can accommodate about 500 people visitors. This marble great room there were 48 dioramas on all four sides and 3 diorama in the middle, so that a total of 51 dioramas. This diorama shows the history of Indonesia since the pre-history to the New Order. This diorama dimula from the northeast corner moving clockwise journey tracing the history of Indonesia; begin the pre-history, the ancient empire like Srivijaya and Majapahit, followed by European colonial period that followed the resistance of the pre-independence national hero against the VOC and Dutch East Indies government. Diorama continues until the period of the Indonesian national movement of the early 20th century, Japanese occupation, wars of independence and the revolution, until the New Order of Suharto's reign.

Independence Room
Inside the monument there is cup-shaped amphitheater Independence Room. This room can be achieved through spin ladder in the north and south side doors. The room is storing state symbols and independence of the Republic of Indonesia. Among the original text of Indonesia's Independence Proclamation stored in a glass case inside the gilded gates, the symbol of the state of Indonesia, a map of the Unitary Republic of Indonesia archipelago gold plated, white and red flag, and the walls are inscribed the manuscript Proclamation of Independence of the Republic of Indonesia. [1] [8 ]. In the space of Independence National Monument was used as a quiet room and meditate for a moment of silence remembering the essence of independence and the struggle of the Indonesian nation. The original of the proclamation of Indonesian independence is stored in a glass case in the gold-plated gate. Mechanical door is made of bronze weighing 4 tons of gold-plated engravings adorned Wijaya Kusuma flower that symbolizes eternity, and the lotus flower which symbolizes purity. This door is located on the west side of the wall right in the middle of the room and black marble. The door is known as a mechanically Independence Gate will open as he let out the song "State Song" followed later by a recorded voice reading the manuscript proclamation middle Sukarno on August 17, 1945. On the south side there is a statue of Garuda Pancasila, the Indonesian state emblem made of bronze weighing 3.5 tons and gold plated. On the eastern side there is writing the script lettered proclamation bronze, this side should display the flag of the most sacred and exalted Sang Saka Merah Putih, which was originally flown on August 17, 1945. But because his condition was getting old and fragile, sacred flag is not displayed. Diding north side of this black marble featuring gilded archipelago, symbolizing the location of the Unitary Republic of Indonesia.

Court Summit and Independence Fire
An elevator (lift) on the south side of the door will bring visitors to the court of the peak size of 11 x 11 meters at an altitude of 115 meters from ground level. This elevator transport capacity of 11 people once. Court of this peak can accommodate about 50 people, and there are binoculars to see the panorama of Jakarta closer. In the elevator around the body there is an emergency staircase made of iron. From the top court of the Monas monument, visitors can enjoy views across the city. If the sunny weather conditions without the smoke haze, in the direction to the south visible from a distance of Mount Salak in Bogor regency, West Java, stretching north sea with small islands.
National Monument at the top there is the cup that sustains bronze torches weighing 14.5 tons and 35 Kilograms of gold coated. Flame or torch, measuring 14 meters high and 6 meters in diameter consisting of 77 sections that are put together. This flame as a symbol of the spirit of struggle of the Indonesian people who want to achieve independence. Initially the flame is coated sheet bronze gold weighing 35 kilograms [1], but to welcome the celebration of half a century (50 years) Indonesian independence in 1995, gold leaf was re-covered so as to achieve weight 50 kilograms of gold sheet. [9] Peak monument form of "Fire Nan unflagging" meaningful for the Indonesian nation always has a fiery spirit in the struggle and never recede or outages of all time. Court of the cup to provide views for visitors from a height of 17 meters from ground level. Court of the cup can be reached via an elevator when it fell from the top court, or through the ladder reached the bottom of the cup. High court of the cup from the bottom of 17 meters, while the high range of space history museum to the bottom of the cup is 8 m (3 feet below ground plus 5 meters of stairs to the base plate). Area of the square courtyard, measuring 45 x 45 meters, it is the preservation of sacred figures Proclamation of Independence (17-8-1945).

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